| Online Teaching: Instructional Design Theories Part II |
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Online Teaching: Instructional Design Theories Part II
C. M. Reigeluth HISTORY OF ID THEORIES Like most fields, ID theory began by investigating general instructional variables, such as expository vs. discovery, lecture vs. discussion, and media-based vs. traditional methods. It was soon realized that two discovery methods could differ more from each other than do a discovery and an expository method. The field then gradually entered an analysis phase in its development (which began to gain visibility in the late 1950s with B F Skinner's work). The research objective was to break a method down into elementary components and discover which ones made a difference. Instructional researchers then proceeded to build a considerable knowledge base of validated prescriptions, primarily for the simpler types of learning, for which the behaviorist paradigm was fairly adequate. Researchers have since found that the effects of each component are often influenced considerably by which other components happen to be present in the instruction. Furthermore, researchers have realized that practitioners need to think holistically; in other words, they need to identify the best combination of method components for a given situation. Hence, the field entered into a synthesis phase, which began to gain visibility in the 1980s with the publication ofReigeluth's (1983)edited volume Instructional Design Theories and Models, in which the focus is on building components into optimal models of instruction for different situations. The research objective is to improve a given model or theory. Aside from this developmental process that most fields and disciplines seem to go through, another historical trend has strongly influenced the development of ID theories: the ongoing transformation from the industrial age to the global information age. Certain general characteristics prevailed during the industrial age that are giving way to new characteristics in the information age (Reigeluth 1992a). Some of those changes have particularly important implications for a new paradigm of education. Perelman (1987) documented many problems with the current paradigm of education. In the United States and many other industrialized countries, consolidated districts are highly bureaucratic, centrally controlled autocracies in which students receive little preparation for participating in a democratic society. They frequently exhibit adversarial relationships, not only between teachers and administrators but also between teachers and students, and even between teachers and parents. Leadership is vested in individuals according to a hierarchical management structure, and all those lower in the hierarchy are expected to obey those above. Learning is highly compartmentalized into subject areas. Students are often treated as if they are all the same and are all expected to do the same things at the same time. They are also usually forced to be passive learners and passive members of their school community. These characteristics are all incompatible with society's needs in the emerging information age, and changes in this paradigm are beginning to emerge. Those changes will have very important implications for ID theory. EMERGENT TRENDS AND ISSUES Most current ID theories were developed for the industrial-age paradigm of education and training. Just as mass production in business is giving way to customized production (Reich 1991) and mass marketing is giving way to targeted marketing (Toffler 1991), so mass teaching is giving way to personalized teaching. These changes in all of these sectors (and others) are made possible by information technology. Every year teachers are acquiring more and more powerful tools with which to facilitate learning. Those tools require the use of new instructional methods to take full advantage of their expanded capabilities. Hence, ID theories must offer guidance for the use of such new instructional methods. These information-age ID theories are likely to incorporate prescriptions for the use of adaptive strategies, advanced technologies, constructivist strategies, minimalist instruction, and systemic change, to name but a few of the emerging ideas. Each of these will be briefly described. 1. Adaptive Strategies Whereas conformity was one of the general characteristics of the industrial age, diversity is emerging as a hallmark of the information age. Different students increasingly have very different learning needs, inter ests, goals, abilities, prior knowledge, and so forth. It is therefore increasingly important to adapt instruction —both content and methods—to each learner's needs and interests. Advanced technologies are gradually providing more powerful and cost-effective means for such adaptations. 2. Advanced Technologies There are two important ways in which advanced technologies are influencing the future development of ID theories: through their use as tutors and tools for learners and their use as tools for instructional designers. As tutors new technologies offer new capabilities that require new instructional strategies to take appropriate advantage of them. Dynamic media require guidelines as to when and how to use motion in instruction. Interactive media require prescriptions as to what kinds of learner activities to encourage when, and when and how to respond to each kind of learner activity. Massive memory storage capabilities require guidelines as to when and how to utilize them best in instruction. Hypertext and hypermedia require guidelines as to when and how their unique capabilities can best be utilized to facilitate learning. Multimedia, expert systems, artificial intelligence, computer-based simulations, and virtual reality represent but a few of the additional technologies for which guidelines are sorely needed. The increasingly more powerful and cost-effective capabilities of these advanced technologies all require guidelines as to when and how best to use them to facilitate learning. 3. Constructivist Strategies Constructivism offers some practical instructional strategies that have much to contribute to the new paradigm of education for the information age. Some of its strategies are fairly uniformly applicable to most kinds of learning, but others are only applicable to higher-level learning in ill-structured domains. At the heart of constructivism is the belief that each learner must construct his or her own knowledge and therefore that instruction must create an active role for the learner (see, e.g.. Brown etal. 1989, Perkins 1992). It also prescribes that learning should be situated in authentic activities. Slightly less broadly applicable is the prescription that instruction should facilitate the construction of meaning, or sense making. This is accomplished primarily through such strategics as learning in context, modeling, and coaching, but it may not be for all learning situations. Perhaps the most valuable contributions of constructivism are considerably less broadly applicable: those for facilitating higher-level learning in ill-structured domains. Some useful instructional strategies include: generative tasks, learner exploration, analogical transfer, and the fostering of multiple perspectives. 4. Minimalist Instruction Carroll (1990) has developed the idea of "minimalist instruction" for teaching people "what they need to leam in order to do what they wish to do" (p. 3). It is similar to the notions of just-in-time training and on-line help systems. At its heart is the idea of not teaching people things that they do not yet have to know. This seems most appropriate for training situations, such as training people to use desktop computer systems, where it is relatively easy to determine what one needs to leam at a given point in time. Another important aspect of minimalist instruction is "to design instruction to suit the learning strategies people spontaneously adopt" (p. 3) and the relevant knowledge they have already acquired. Both of these require that the instruction be highly adaptive, and utilize advanced technology and some constructivist strategies. Specific instructional prescriptions include the following. First, all instruction should occur with real tasks that are meaningful to the learner, so that the learner is motivated. Second, the "training wheels" approach should be used so as to pick a version of the meaningful task that is simple enough not to overwhelm the beginner. For example, a real word-processing task might be selected that requires the use of only a small subset of the capabilities of the system. This is similar to the Elaboration Theory's "simplifying conditions method" approach to sequencing (Reigeluth 1992b). Some artificial simplifying conditions can also be instituted, such as disabling certain functions of the system, so that the learner cannot yet make certain types of errors. As the learner progresses, the meaningful tasks become gradually more complex until the learner has mastered all that he or she needs to learn. Third, the learner should be helped to understand meaningfully what he or she is doing. Reasoning is very important for this process, and the learner's prior knowledge must be diagnosed and utilized. Fourth, reading materials and other passive activities should be reduced to a minimum, and largely replaced with discovery activities. The reading materials should be designed for random access and to be read in any order, and they should have strong linkages to different pans of the real, meaningful task. Fifth, emphasis should be placed on helping the learner to recognize and recover from errors so that errors become triggers for positive learning experiences. 5. Affective Learning The affective domain (Krathwohl et al. 1964) has received relatively little attention from instructional theorists, but it is emerging as an important area of human development for the information age. Martin and Briggs (1986) conducted a comprehensive review of ID theories in this domain, and identified three major dimensions that appear to require different models of instruction: attitudes and values, morals and ethics, and self-development. They also identified a variety of other dimensions of the affective domain: emotional development and feelings, interest and motivation, social development and group dynamics, and attributions. The most advanced ID theories are in the dimension of attitudes and values and include the Yale Communication and Attitude Change Program, Dissonance Theory, Cognitive Balancing Theory, Social Judgment Theory, and Social Learning Theory (see Martin and Briggs 1986 for a summary). One of the most promising new developments in this domain is an ID theory for attitudes being developed by Kamradt and Kamradt (in press). Based on the notion that attitudes have a tripartite composition of feelings, cognitions, and behaviors, they have developed a set of guidelines for systemically influencing all three through a systematic process that moves the learner just outside of his or her comfort zone one step at a time in the direction of the desired attitude. First, role-playing is used to force a new behavior more consistent with the target attitude. This creates a dissonance or discomfort which serves as a trigger event to influence the cognitive element through discussion and persuasion. Finally, reinforcement techniques are used to change the feelings associated with the new behavior and new thinking. After this small shift in attitude has been consolidated, the learner is ready for another round of this three-part strategy. Ethical issues are particularly important in the affective domain, and the Kamradts advocate that no attempts be made to change a learner's attitude without the knowledge and consent of the learner. Another development in the affective domain is the character education movement, which is concerned with teaching core values developed through community consensus (Huffman 1994, Kirschenbaum 1992, Lickona 1991). Core values may include: self-discipline, empathy, respect, responsibility, trust-worthiness, caring, fairness, loyalty, honesty, love, courage, and citizenship. One key issue is identifying "core" or "consensus" values that address the needs of the local district and community. Another key issue is figuring out the best methods for teaching them. Possible methods include: inculcation, modeling, discussion, role playing, experiential learning, reflection on experiences, integration into the curriculum, peer- and service-oriented programs, and creating an environment that nourishes character-building relationships. This is an important new area that needs and deserves much attention from researchers and practitioners alike. 6. Systemic Change It seems highly likely, given the different educational needs of the information age, that ID theories will adapt to meet the needs of a new paradigm of education and training, and that those changes will incorporate the use of adaptive strategies, advanced technologies, constructivist strategies, and minimalist instruction. For a more thorough exploration of what the new paradigm of education and training may be like and why it is needed, see Reigeluth (1996). However, this new paradigm of instruction will be of little value if the larger system within which it is embedded remains rooted in the industrial age. Referring back to Banathy's (1991) four levels of educational (and training) systems (learning-experience, instructional, administrative, and governance), this entry has focused on theory for prescribing the instructional system that will support a new paradigm of learning to meet the radically different education and training needs and conditions of the emerging information society. But unless a compatible paradigm shift is also effected at the administrative and governance levels, the new instructional paradigm will be ineffective and short-lived. Instructional designers and ID theorists alike must begin to view themselves as concerned with educational systems design—spanning all four levels of the system—not just with instructional systems design—focusing on just one of those levels. (For further information, see, e.g.. Reigeluth and Garfinkle 1992.) CONCLUSION ID theory is still a relatively young field. Much remains to be learned about how to facilitate learning, especially more complex kinds of learning in ill-defined domains (including thinking skills) and the affective domain (including attitudes and values). In addition, massive changes in society are forcing the development of a new paradigm in ID theory for even the least complex kinds of learning. The need for more adaptive instruction, combined with the development of far more powerful technological tools for learning, have created entirely new horizons for ID theory. See also: Constructivism and Learning; Instructional Psy. chology (as a Contributing Field to Instructional Design) REFERENCES Banathy B H 1991 Systems Design of Education. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Brown J S, Collins A, Duguid P 1989 Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educ. Researcher 18(1): 32-42 Carroll J M 1990 The Niirnberg Funnel: Designing Minimalist Instruction for Practical Computer Skill. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts Cronbach L J, Suppes P 1969 Research for Tomorrow's Schools: Disciplined Inquiry in Education. Macmillan, New York Huffman H 1994 Developing a Character Education Program Kamradt E M, Kamradi T F in press A systematic approach for attitude development. Educ. Technol. Kirschenbaum H 1992 A comprehensive model for values education and moral education. Phi Delia Kappan, 73(10): 771-76 Krathwohl D R, Bloom B S, Masia B B 1964 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. McKay, New York Lickona T 1991 Educating for Character: How our Schools can Teach Respect and Responsibility. Bantam Books, New York Martin B L, Briggs L J 1986 The Affective and Cognitive Domains: Integration/or Instruction and Research. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Newman D 1990 Opportunities for research on the organizational impact of school computers. Educ. Researcher 19(3); 8-13 Perelman L J 1987 Technology and Transformation of Schools. National School Boards Association, Alexandria, Virginia Perkins DN 1992 Technology meets Constructivism: Do they make a marriage? In: Duffy T M, Jonassen D H (eds.) 1992 Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction. Eribaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey Reich R B 1991 The Work of Nations. Knopf, New York Reigeluth C M (ed.) 1983 Instructional-Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current Status. Eribaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey Reigeluth C M (ed.) 1987 Instructional Strategies in Action: Lessons Illustrating Selected Theories and Models. Eribaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey Reigeluth C M 1989 Educational technology at the crossroads: New mindsets and new directions. Educ. Tech, Res.Dev. 37(1); 67-80 Reigeluth C M 1992a The imperative for systemic change. Educ. Technol. 32(11): 9-13 Reigeluth C M 1992b Elaborating the elaboration theory, Educ. Tech. Res. Dev. 40(3): 80-86 Reigeluth C M 1996 A new paradigm oflSD? Educ. Technol. 36(3): 13-20 Reigeluth C M, Garfinkle R J (eds.) 1992 Systemic change in education (special issue). Educ. Technol. 32(11) Simon H A 1969 The Sciences of the Artificial. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts Snelbecker G E 1987 Contrasting and complementary approaches to instructional design. In: Reigeluth C M (ed.) 1987 Toffler A 1991 Power Shift. Bantam Books, New York Further Reading Bloom B S (ed.) 1956 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: |
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